George Mallory

For the American pathologist, see George Kenneth Mallory.

George Mallory
George Mallory, c. 1916
Born	George Herbert Leigh Mallory (1886-06-18)18 June 1886 Mobberley, Cheshire, England
Died	8 or 9 June 1924 (aged 37) North Face (Everest), Tibet
Cause of death	Mountaineering accident
Body discovered	1 May 1999
Alma mater	Magdalene College, Cambridge
Occupation(s)	Teacher, mountaineer
Spouse	Christiana Ruth Turner ​ ​ (m. 1914)​
Children	3
Military career
Allegiance	United Kingdom
Service / branch	British Army
Years of service	1915–1918
Rank	Lieutenant
Battles / wars	First World War

Olympic medal record
Men's Alpinism
Representing United Kingdom
Olympic Games
	1924 Chamonix	Everest expedition

George Herbert Leigh-Mallory (18 June 1886 – 8 or 9 June 1924) was an English mountaineer who participated in the first three British Mount Everest expeditions in the early 1920s. He and climbing partner Andrew "Sandy" Irvine were last seen ascending near Everest's summit during the 1924 expedition, sparking debate as to whether they reached it before they died.

Born in Cheshire, England, Mallory became a student at Winchester College, where a teacher recruited him for an excursion in the Alps, and he developed a strong natural climbing ability. After graduating from Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he became friends with prominent intellectuals, he taught at Charterhouse School while honing his climbing skills in the Alps and the English Lake District. He pioneered new routes and became a respected figure in the British climbing community.

His service in the First World War interrupted his climbing, but he returned with renewed vigor after the war. Mallory's most notable contributions to mountaineering were his expeditions to Everest. In 1921, he participated in the first British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition, which established the North Col-North Ridge as a viable route to the summit. In 1922, he took part in a second expedition to attempt the first ascent of Everest, in which his team achieved a world altitude record of 27,300 ft (8,321 m) using supplemental oxygen. They were awarded Olympic gold medals for alpinism.

During the 1924 expedition, Mallory and Irvine disappeared on Everest's Northeast Ridge. They were last seen alive approximately 800 vertical feet (240 metres) from the summit, sparking debate as to whether one or both reached it before they died. Mallory's body was found in 1999 by the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition at 26,760 feet, along with personal effects. The discovery provided clues, but no definitive proof about whether they reached the summit. When asked by a reporter why he wanted to climb Everest, Mallory purportedly replied, "Because it's there."

Early life and teaching career

Childhood

St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley, which Mallory climbed, aged 7

George Herbert Leigh-Mallory was born at Newton Hall, Mobberley, Cheshire, on 18 June 1886, the first son and second child of the Reverend Herbert Leigh Mallory, rector of the parish. His mother was Annie Beridge Leigh-Mallory. Mallory had two sisters, Mary Henrietta and Annie Victoria (Avie), and a younger brother, Trafford, the Second World War Royal Air Force commander. At the end of 1891, the Mallorys moved from Newton Hall to Hobcroft House, Mobberley. The family resided there until 1904, when they moved to Birkenhead, Cheshire. Mallory exhibited early audaciousness for climbing. Aged 7, he climbed the roof of his father's church, St Wilfrid's, in Mobberley. His sister Avie recalls, "He climbed everything that it was at all possible to climb." Included in his climbing escapades were the drainpipes of Hobcroft House and the walls that divided the farmers' fields.

1896–1905: Glengorse and Winchester College

Winchester College Chapel (right) and scholars' College (left), where Mallory was a scholar between 1900-05

In 1896, Mallory was sent to Glengorse boarding school in Eastbourne on the south coast of England, after the abrupt closure of his first preparatory school in West Kirby, following the death of its headmaster. Mallory won a maths scholarship to Winchester College, an English public school, where he started in September 1900. At Winchester, he was proficient at sports, in addition to his academic ability. He became the best gymnast in the school, the only one capable of performing the giant swing on the horizontal bar. In July 1904, Mallory was a member of the Winchester team who won the Ashburton Shield for rifle shooting at Bisley.

The housemaster of College, the boarding house for scholars, R. L. G. Irving, was an accomplished mountaineer and a member of the Alpine Club. In 1904, Irving was searching for new climbing companions after the death in an accident of the partner with whom he had done most of his climbing. Irving recruited Mallory and fellow pupil and friend, Harry Gibson, for a trip to the Alps. In early August 1904, Irving, Mallory, and Gibson travelled to the Alps for Mallory's first high-altitude mountaineering. In his final year at Winchester, Mallory studied history instead of mathematics. After sitting his exams, he was awarded a history scholarship, known as a sizarship, to Magdalene College, Cambridge.

1905–09: Magdalene College, Cambridge

Magdalene College, Cambridge

"Mon dieu!—George Mallory! ... My hand trembles, my heart palpitates, my whole being swoons ... he's six foot high, with the body of an athlete by Praxiteles, and a face—oh incredible—the mystery of Botticelli, the refinement and delicacy of a Chinese print, the youth and piquancy of an unimaginable English boy."

     — Lytton Strachey, writing to Clive and Vanessa Bell of his first meeting with Mallory. 21 May 1909.

In October 1905 Mallory entered Magdalene College to study history; A. C. Benson was his tutor, and became infatuated with Mallory. On 6 February 1907, at Christ's College, Mallory dined with Charles Edward Sayle, under-librarian at Cambridge University Library. At Sayle's house on Trumpington Street, Mallory met undergraduates with whom he established enduring friendships; painter Jacques Raverat, surgeon and author Geoffrey Keynes were among them. He became good friends with poet Rupert Brooke and psychoanalyst James Strachey. On 12 February 1909, Mallory met Geoffrey Winthrop Young and developed a good friendship. Through James and Geoffrey, Mallory got to know their brothers, Lytton Strachey and John Maynard Keynes, who were members of the Bloomsbury Group. Through the Stracheys, he befriended their cousin, painter Duncan Grant, a Bloomsbury member. His letters attest to the flirtatious, homoerotic aspect of these friendships. Following his engagement in 1914, he wrote to one-time sex partner James Strachey: “It can hardly be a shock to you that I desert the ranks of the fashionable homosexualists (and yet I am still in part of that persuasion) unless you think I have turned monogamist. But you may be assured that this last catastrophe has not happened."

Mallory developed into an accomplished rower at Magdalene. In October 1906, he was elected secretary of the Magdalene Boat Club and captain of boats from 1907 to 1908. Mallory joined the University Fabian Society, and acted as college secretary on the University Women's Suffrage Association committee. The Marlowe Society was established in 1907 and Mallory acted in its first production Doctor Faustus.

Academically, in May 1907, Mallory sat Part I of the history tripos, achieving a third class. In 1908, in Part II, he attained a second class degree. Mallory had to consider a future career. In 1907, he had consulted deputy headmaster of Winchester, Howard Rendall, about becoming a teacher there, but Rendall gave him a stern retort; Mallory informed his tutor, A. C. Benson; "He says that as I have nothing to teach and would probably teach it badly, there is not the least chance of ever getting to Winchester." Rendall suggested he go into the church and Mallory unenthusiastically pondered following in his father's footsteps, contemplating "parish work of some kind ... I'm at variance with so many parsons that I meet. They're excessively good, most of them much better than I can ever hope to be, but their sense of goodness seems sometimes to displace their reason." Benson suggested Mallory return to Magdalene for a fourth year, where he could improve upon his degree, Mallory agreed and settled into rooms at Pythagoras House, a short distance from Magdalene.

In February 1909, Geoffrey Winthrop Young invited Mallory to Wales for a climbing trip at Easter. After Mallory's return to Magdalene, Young sent him an application form for the Climbers' Club, and in May 1909, Mallory was elected a member. The subject for the Members' Prize Essay in 1909 was James Boswell, biographer of Samuel Johnson; and Mallory decided to enter. He was awarded second place; Benson encouraged Mallory to submit his essay for publication and in 1912, his Boswell the Biographer, was published by Smith, Elder & Co. In July 1909, Mallory's education at Magdalene was complete.

1909–10: Interim

In October 1909, the painter Simon Bussy, whose wife Dorothy was the sister of Lytton and James Strachey, invited Mallory to spend the winter with them at their villa in Roquebrune in the Alpes-Maritimes. Mallory, who had recently received a small family inheritance, accepted their offer and travelled to France in early November to stay with them. He stayed in Paris for a month to improve his French by reading, attending the theatre, music hall, Sorbonne lectures, and conversing.

In April 1910, Mallory returned to Cambridge, contemplating his career prospects. In May he took a temporary teaching post at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, which lasted two weeks. In July, Mallory received a letter from the headmaster of Charterhouse, an English public school, Gerald Henry Rendall, offering a job teaching Latin, mathematics, history, and French, which Mallory accepted.

1910–14: Charterhouse School

"He was wasted at Charterhouse ... the boys generally despised him as neither a disciplinarian nor interested in cricket or football. He tried to treat his classes in a friendly way, which puzzled and offended them because of the school tradition of concealed warfare between boys and masters."

     — Robert Graves, one of Mallory's students at Charterhouse.

In September 1910, Mallory began teaching at Charterhouse, as an assistant headmaster. One problem was his youthful appearance, and so he was often mistaken by parents for a student. His teaching methods relied on infectious enthusiasm and avuncular mannerisms rather than imposing his authority. He followed the styles of Irving and Benson, who sought to educate through mutual respect, getting to know pupils as individuals and repudiating the authoritarianism of most British schools. Several colleagues developed a hostile attitude towards him, due to his informal teaching methods, which they considered undermined discipline. He recommended students read literature extensively, write essays on subjects such as hypocrisy, candour, and popularity, and he engaged them in discussion on politics and literature. He took them on excursions to places of aesthetic scenery and architectural landmarks.

Robert Graves, a student from 1909 to 1914, said Mallory was the best teacher and first genuine friend he ever had. In his autobiography, Good-Bye to All That, Graves wrote fondly of Mallory, who encouraged him in poetry and, took him climbing in Snowdon. Irving and Geoffrey Winthrop Young proposed Mallory for the Alpine Club, and in December 1910, he was elected a member. During the summer of 1913, Mallory collaborated with Graves and other students, to produce a magazine called Green Chartreuse, intended to rival other school magazines, with its first publication on Old Carthusian Day, 5 July 1913. Mallory presented lectures on Italian painting in spring 1914, engaging students in a "rather philosophical" discussion about Botticelli, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

Climbing in Europe

The Alps

Mallory, with Harold Porter, established a new route on the Aiguille des Grands Charmoz in 1919

Mallory embarked on eight expeditions in the Alps and achieved four first ascents. His first climb was on 5 August 1904, when he, Irving, and Gibson ascended Mont Vélan on the Swiss-Italian border, but had to retreat 600 ft (183 m) below the summit because Mallory and Gibson suffered from altitude sickness. On 13 August, they reached the summit of Dufourspitze, the third-highest peak in Western Europe. On 26 August, Irving and Mallory summited Mont Blanc, at 15,800 ft (4,807.81 m), the highest mountain in Western Europe, marking Mallory's entry into high-altitude mountaineering.

In January 1905, Graham Irving established the Winchester Ice Club; Mallory, Gibson, Harry Tyndale, and Guy Bullock became members. In August, the Ice Club travelled to the Alps. Mallory would not return for another four years, when he achieved a first ascent of the Southeast Ridge of Nesthorn, with Young and Charles Robertson on 4 August 1909. Mallory wrote to his mother, "We were out 21 hours and were altogether pleased with ourselves." Mallory almost died after missing a hold above an overhang. On 7 August, they crossed the mountain pass Grünhornlücke, followed by the Fiescher Glacier, and climbed to the summit via the Southeast Ridge of the highest mountain in the Bernese Alps, Finsteraarhorn, at 14,022 ft (4,274 m), graded approximately 5.8, using the Yosemite Decimal System (YDS). One of Mallory's closest friends and climbing companions, whom he met in Switzerland on this trip, was a woman named Cottie Sanders, who became a novelist using the pseudonym of Ann Bridge. Their relationship was elusive; Sanders was either a "climbing friend" or "casual sweetheart." After Mallory died, Cottie wrote a memoir of him, which was never published but provided much of the material used by later biographers.

At the beginning of August 1911, Mallory returned to the Alps with Irving and Tyndale. On 9 August, they reached the summit of Herbétet, by way of a first ascent of its Western Ridge. On 18 August, Irving, Mallory, and Tyndale reached the summit of Mont Maudit, via the third ascent of its Southeast Ridge, and Mont Blanc. In 1917, Mallory rewrote an impassioned account about the Maudit ascent. It was published in the Alpine Journal of 1918 and contained the question, "Have we vanquished an enemy? None but ourselves."

In August 1912, Mallory undertook his sixth expedition to the Alps, along with Harold Porter and Hugh Pope. On 17 August, they established a new line on the West Face of Dent Blanche, graded 5.6–5.7. On 2 August 1919, Mallory and Porter set out from Montenvers and proceeded up the Mer de Glace to the Glacier de Trélaporte, from where they ascended a new route to the summit of Aiguille des Grands Charmoz, likely graded 5.7. Three days later, they climbed a new route to the summit of Aiguille du Midi, at 12,605 ft (3,842 m). This route, rectified by the climber Jean-Louis Urquizar in 1971, is now known as Rectified Mallory-Porter, totalling 5,020 ft (1,530 m) in elevation gain and graded approximately 5.8–5.9.

Scotland

North Face of Ben Nevis

On 6 April 1906, Mallory, Irving, and Leach reached the summit of Ben Nevis, climbing in snow via Observatory Gully and Tower Gully on the northeast face. The following day, the trio ascended Stob Bàn, following the corniced main arête to the summit. On 9 April, they climbed to the summit of Càrn Mòr Dearg, which preceded a second successful ascent of Ben Nevis on the same day via North Trident Buttress. On 10 April, they successfully climbed a feature on Ben Nevis—that they termed East Zmutt Ridge after Zmutt Ridge on the Matterhorn—likely graded YDS 5.5–5.6. On 12 April, Mallory, Irving, and Leach attained a successful ascent of Ben Nevis in snow and ice via North-East Buttress. Their achievement was the second recorded winter ascent of this route, after the first in 1896.

On 28 July 1918, Mallory, David Randall Pye, and Leslie Garnet Shadbolt, climbing together, made a new route on the North Face of Sgùrr a' Mhadaidh on the Isle of Skye, Scotland, graded 5.5–5.6. On 31 July, the trio established another new route with Mallory leading on the Western Buttress of the crag, Sron na Ciche, located in the Cuillin mountains; this route is now known as Mallory's Slab and Groove, and graded about 5.5.

Wales

Mallory climbing solo, established the first ascent of The Slab Climb on the East Buttress of Y Lliwedd

On 14 September 1907, Mallory accomplished his first two climbs in Wales: North Gully and North Buttress on Tryfan. On 18 September, Mallory, Keynes, and Wilson climbed Terminal Arête, on Lliwedd's East Buttress, and inadvertently dislodged a large rock when finishing their climb. Much to their consternation, the rock almost hit James Thomson and partner E.S. Reynolds as they climbed below on a new route, which they aptly named Avalanche Route.

On Craig yr Ysfa, the triad climbed two routes: Great Gully, at 732 ft (223 m), and Amphitheatre Buttress, at 961 ft (293 m), both graded about 5.5. Mallory returned to Snowdonia in August 1908, accompanied by his brother, Trafford. Mallory, climbing solo, established the first ascent of The Slab Climb on the East Buttress of Lliwedd, now known as Mallory's Slab, at 220 ft (67 m), and graded 5.5. The ascent of The Slab Climb occurred due to Mallory scaling it to retrieve his pipe, which he had left behind on a ledge known as Bowling Green. In April 1909, Mallory and Geoffrey Winthrop Young journeyed to Pen-y-Pass. On the cliffs of Craig yr Ysfa, Mallory and Young established three new ascents and climbed The Slab Climb (Mallory's Slab) on the East Buttress of Lliwedd, which Young described as "The hardest rocks I have done."

In September 1911, Mallory and his sister Mary were joined by Harold Porter, Mallory's climbing partner, and stayed at the Snowdon Ranger Inn on the shore of Llyn Cwellyn. Mallory and Porter pioneered new routes that elevated Mallory to the pinnacle of British climbing. On Y Garn, with Porter leading Mallory on the crux, they ascended a new route, now known as Mallory's Ridge, at 394 ft (120 m), graded 5.9–5.10a. This route defeated James Thomson in 1910, who abandoned it on the most challenging pitch, a sixty-foot segment of vertical rock.

England

Napes Needle on Great Gable

Mallory's first rock climbing experience in England transpired during a nine-day excursion to the Lake District in September 1908 with Geoffrey Keynes, Harry Gibson, and Harold Porter. Their initial climb was Kern Knotts Crack on Great Gable, which is graded 5.5. The following day they climbed Napes Needle, a rock pinnacle on Great Gable, at 56 ft (17 m), graded approximately 5.5. Also on Great Gable, they climbed Eagle's Nest Ridge Direct, graded approximately 5.8. They accomplished a successful ascent of North Climb on Pillar Rock, graded YDS 5.6.

On 21 September 1908, they claimed two new routes on the Ennerdale face of Great Gable: Mallory's Left-Hand Route, at 98 ft (30 m), graded YDS 5.5, and Mallory's Right-Hand Route, at 120 ft (37 m), graded about 5.8. In August 1913, Mallory and Geoffrey Winthrop Young achieved a new route, Pinnacle Traverse, at 200 ft (60 m), graded 5.4, on the crag, Carn Lés Boel, in Cornwall. On 7 September 1913, Mallory and Alan Goodfellow, a Charterhouse student, created Mallory's Variation, a new route on Abbey Buttress, Great Gable, where Mallory finished the route by ascending a twenty-foot slab on tenuous grips, rather than exiting to the right. On 8 September, with Mallory leading Goodfellow, the pair established another new route, this time on the West Face of Low Man, Pillar Rock, at 210 ft (65 m), and graded 5.9–5.10a, which they named North-West by West and now known as Mallory's Route. Climbers have rated Everest's Second Step at about 5.9.

Marriage and the First World War

Christiana Ruth Leigh-Mallory (née Turner)

Christiana Ruth Turner was a daughter of architect Hugh Thackeray Turner and embroiderer Mary Elizabeth Turner. Mallory and the Turner family developed a close friendship and he regularly visited their dwelling at Westbrook. In April 1914, Mallory joined Thackeray and his daughters on a holiday in Venice, where Mallory and Ruth fell precipitately in love. On 1 May 1914, at Westbrook, Mallory and Ruth became engaged. Thackeray purchased a six-bedroom house for them, named The Holt, in Godalming, Surrey. On 29 July 1914, six days before Britain entered the First World War, Mallory and Ruth were married in Godalming, with Mallory's father performing the ceremony and Geoffrey Winthrop Young acting as best man. Mallory and Ruth had two daughters and a son: Frances Clare (1915–2001), Beridge Ruth, known as "Berry" (1917–53), and John (1920–2011).

Mallory enlisted in the war effort and started artillery training at Weymouth Camp in January 1916. Frank Fletcher, headmaster of Charterhouse, had initially challenged Mallory's inquiries about enlisting and asked the government about policies regarding schoolmasters enlisting. Mallory received additional training at the School of Siege Artillery at Lydd Camp. He arrived in France in May 1916 and fought at the Battle of the Somme in the 40th Siege Battery. Later that year, he was granted leave, spending ten days at Westbrook House with Ruth and daughter Clare before returning to France on Boxing Day.

He was reassigned as an orderly officer, serving as a colonel's assistant at the 30th Heavy Artillery Group headquarters, three miles behind the front line, for the first weeks of 1917. At the beginning of February 1917, the command recommended Mallory for a staff lieutenancy; he rejected it and was instead assigned a liaison officer position to a French unit. At the end of March, he applied to rejoin the 40th Siege Battery, which had moved to a new location. On 7 April, during the prelude to the Battle of Arras, he was back at the front with the 40th Siege Battery in an exposed observation post, directing artillery fire.

"The trenches were in a filthy state, owing to a more or less futile attack made by our men the night before. I don't object to corpses so long as they are fresh. I soon found that I could reason thus with them ... But this is an accepted fact that men are killed ... your jaw hangs and your flesh changes colour and blood oozes from your wounds. With the wounded it is different. It always distresses me to see them."

     — Mallory, in a letter to his wife, Ruth. 15 August 1916.

In September Mallory was sent, under new orders, to Avington Park Camp near Winchester, and was transferred from the Siege Battery to a Heavy Battery. Mallory trained at the camp with the Royal Artillery's new generation of 60-pounder heavy guns.

In October 1917, Mallory was promoted lieutenant and commenced a training course for newly promoted officers at Avington Park Camp. On 23 September 1918, Mallory was reassigned to the 515th Siege Battery, stationed between Arras and the French coast. On the evening of 11 November, at the officers' club in Cambrai, Mallory celebrated peace with his brother Trafford. Due to the British requirement to demobilise more than a million men and the dearth of ships, Mallory did not return to England until January 1919.

The lure of Everest

Following his return from France, Mallory and his family re-established themselves in their previous residence, The Holt in Godalming, Surrey. At the end of January 1919, Mallory resumed his teaching position at Charterhouse, where he taught English and history. Mallory felt dissatisfied as a schoolmaster, devoting more attention to mountaineering issues, the direction of international politics, and the fundamental objectives of education, and pondering how he could find more time for writing.

Sir Francis Younghusband

In January 1921, representatives of the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club jointly established the Mount Everest Committee to organise and finance an expedition to Mount Everest. The committee consisted of four RGS members and four Alpine Club members; from the RGS were Sir Francis Younghusband, Arthur Robert Hinks, Edward Lygon Somers-Cocks, and Colonel Evan Maclean Jack; from the Alpine Club were Professor John Norman Collie, John Percy Farrar, Charles Francis Meade, and John Edward Caldwell Eaton. The committee's primary objective in 1921 was a thorough reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to determine the most viable route to the summit, and in 1922 to return for a second expedition, using this route for an all-out attempt to reach the summit. On 23 January 1921, Mallory received written correspondence from John Percy Farrar, secretary of the Alpine Club, its former president and the nascent Mount Everest Committee member. In the letter, Farrar asked Mallory if he would be interested in participating in an expedition to Everest: "It appears an attempt on Everest will occur this summer. The party would depart in early April and return in October. Any ambitions?"

Although grateful for the invitation, Mallory initially felt reluctant to accept it, knowing that his participation would mean a lengthy separation from his wife and young children, and he also expressed scepticism regarding the viability of the expedition. Geoffrey Winthrop Young visited him at the Holt, Godalming when he learned of his hesitance and swiftly persuaded him and Ruth not to disregard the opportunity, saying that it would be an incredible adventure and earn him reputable renown for prospects in future professions as an educator or writer. Young's arguments convinced Ruth, and she concurred that Mallory should join the expedition; realising it was "the opportunity of a lifetime," Mallory decided to participate. On 9 February 1921, in Mayfair, London, Mallory met with Sir Francis Younghusband, chairman of the Mount Everest Committee; John Percy Farrar, a committee member; and Harold Raeburn, the assigned mountaineering leader of the 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition. At the meeting, Younghusband formally invited Mallory to join the expedition and was surprised to observe that he accepted without any evident emotion and exhibited no indication that he was brimming with enthusiasm. In February 1921, Mallory officially tendered his resignation from his mastership at Charterhouse, changing his previous intended decision of resigning at the end of the summer term.

North Face of Mount Everest

On 8 April 1921, Mallory departed from the Port of Tilbury in Essex, England, on board SS Sardinia, and brought the final shipment of expedition supplies. It was a solitary voyage, as the other expedition members had already departed or were in India.

Everest expeditions

1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition

Main article: 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition

Eight members of the 1921 Everest expedition. Standing left to right are Guy Bullock, Henry Morshead, Oliver Wheeler, and George Mallory. Alexander Heron, Sandy Wollaston, Charles Howard-Bury, and Harold Raeburn are seated left to right.

The first Everest expedition in 1921 had the express objective of undertaking a reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to discover the most accessible route to its summit. Expedition surveyors Henry Morshead, Oliver Wheeler and Indian surveyors, produced the first accurate maps of the region. On 18 August at 3am, after an arduous two-month-long reconnaissance of Everest's northern and eastern approaches, Mallory, Guy Bullock, Henry Morshead, and a porter left their high camp at approximately 20,000 ft (6,096 m). From the western head of the Kharta Glacier, they ascended to the col of Lhakpa La, at 22,470 ft (6,849 m). From the col of Lhakpa La, 1,200 ft (366 m) directly below them, was the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier, across which rises a 1,000 ft (305 m) wall of snow and ice leading to Everest's North Col, at 23,030 ft (7,020 m), from where mountaineers can attain the summit via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route. Their preliminary reconnaissance was complete: they had discovered the gateway to the mountain. On 23 September Mallory, Bullock, Wheeler, and ten porters left their camp on Lhakpa La, descended into the East Rongbuk Glacier, and pitched camp at an elevation of 22,000 ft (6,706 m), 1 mile (1.6 km) from the beginning of the ascent to the North Col. On 24 September, the three expedition members and three porters, departed their camp, traversed 1 mile (1.6 km) across the East Rongbuk Glacier to the foot of the 1,000 ft (305 m) precipitous wall of snow and ice, which they arduously ascended, and reached the North Col. On the col and above, gale force winds blew from the northwest, which made progress impossible, and they descended to their camp on the East Rongbuk Glacier. Wheeler suffered from frostbite in his lower extremities, and Bullock was exhausted. The next day, the severe winds had not abated and the porters were at the limits of their physical reserves, so Mallory decided to end the expedition.

On 29 October, Mallory departed from Bombay, India, on board SS Malwa. On 9 November, Younghusband wrote to Mallory requesting he participate in the second expedition in 1922. He expressed that waiting until 1923 was unviable as they could not afford to squander the opportunity the current benevolence of the Tibetans presented. The letter awaited Mallory in Marseille, France. Mallory wrote to his sister Avie, expressing reservations about returning to Everest in 1922. His wife Ruth awaited him in Marseille, where they spent a holiday touring Provence. They discussed his participation in the 1922 expedition and concluded he should not decline the opportunity. On 25 November, they arrived home, a few days afterwards Mallory met Hinks in London and, within a week was included on a list of mountaineers who assented to participate in the 1922 expedition.

Lectures, writing, and preparation for the 1922 expedition

Charles Howard-Bury

On 20 December, in the Queen's Hall, London, Mallory and Charles Howard-Bury delivered a narrative on the 1921 expedition at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club. In exchange for a quarter of the revenue earned, the Mount Everest Committee requested Mallory deliver lectures throughout Britain and contribute to the official expedition book, Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921. On 10 January 1922, Mallory delivered his initial public speech in the Queen's Hall and then journeyed extensively around Britain, filling 30 lecture engagements. The financial results were lucrative, as his 25% per cent share earned him £400, which exceeded his annual salary as a Charterhouse teacher. Preceding his departure for the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition, Mallory completed his written contribution to Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921, titled The Reconnaissance Of The Mountain, consisting of six chapters: The Northern Approach, The Northern Approach (continued), The Eastern Approach, The Assault, Weather And Conditions Of Snow and The Route To The Summit. He reviewed expedition equipment and assisted the Committee in preparations for the 1922 expedition.

1922 British Mount Everest expedition

Main article: 1922 British Mount Everest expedition

The Rongbuk Monastery, with Everest in the background

Mallory returned to the Himalayas as a member of the 1922 British Everest expedition. The expedition's objective was to become the first to summit Everest. On 2 March, Mallory, Howard Somervell, John Noel, Edward Strutt, George Finch, and Arthur Wakefield, crossed the English Channel, travelled by train to Marseille and departed on board the passenger liner Caledonia on 3 March. Mallory engaged in deck tennis with Somervell and Wakefield and attended Finch's oxygen class, which enabled him to overcome his ambivalence about its implementation. After docking in Bombay, they arrived in Darjeeling on 20 March, where they coalesced with the rest of the expedition. Members left in groups for the march to Phari. Mallory's group departed under expedition leader General Charles Granville Bruce, arriving in Phari on 6 April and joined the following day by the remainder of the expedition. They arrived at the Rongbuk Monastery on 30 April. On 1 May, the expedition pitched Base Camp at an altitude of 16,500 ft (5,029 m), 2.75 miles (4.43 km) below the junction of the Rongbuk Glacier and East Rongbuk Glacier.

First summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and Morshead

On 20 May, at 7:30 am, Mallory, Howard Somervell, Edward Norton, Henry Morshead, and four porters began their day at Camp IV, on the North Col at an elevation of 23,000 ft (7,010 m). At 8am, after getting roped up, the eight men commenced their ascent without supplemental oxygen. They aimed to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at an altitude of 26,000 ft (7,925 m), from where they planned an attempt to reach the summit. At 11:30am, they attained an elevation of 25,000 ft (7,620 m), a gain of 2,000 ft (610 m) from the North Col, in 3+1⁄2 hours, a vertical climbing rate of 571 ft (174 m) per hour, including stops. Mallory estimated that from their present position, it would necessitate three hours to ascend 1,000 ft (305 m) and pitch Camp V there, which left little time for the porters to return to Camp IV on the North Col before nightfall, and was uncertain of finding a well-sheltered area from the strong winds on the lee-side of the North Ridge above them. Therefore, they abandoned their initial plan and erected Camp V at their current altitude of 25,000 ft (7,620 m). The four porters departed for the North Col camp at 3pm, and Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and Morshead spent the night at Camp V.

Everest's North Face, with illustrations of the maximum elevations attained by the 1922 expeditions' first and second summit attempts.

The next day, at 8am, the four mountaineers were roped up and commenced their attempt to reach the summit from Camp V. After a few steps, Morshead, suffering from frostbite, declared he was unable to continue and stayed behind at Camp V. Adverse weather conditions prevented the climbers from beginning their ascent at 6am as planned, leaving them behind schedule. Other than possible mountaineering difficulties, their bid depended predominantly on time and speed. Mallory's arithmetical computation estimated their vertical ascent rate at an unsatisfactory 400 ft (122 m) per hour, not including stops, from which it was apparent they would be climbing after nightfall, a risk they were unwilling to take, and decided that 2:30pm was their retreat time. At 2:15pm, Mallory, Somervell, and Norton halted and lay against rocks on the North Ridge, where they remained for fifteen minutes and ate. Their aneroid barometer read 26,800 ft (8,169 m), a height later rectified and confirmed by a theodolite as 26,980 ft (8,225 m), a new world altitude record. They began their descent, and at 4:00pm reached Camp V, where Morshead was waiting to join them for the return to Camp IV. The four climbers roped up and recommenced their descent to 23,000 ft (7,010 m). As they descended, Morshead, who was third on the rope, slipped, and his impetus dragged Somervell and Norton down a slope leading directly to the East Rongbuk Glacier, several thousand feet below. Mallory, who was leading, immediately reacted by forcing the pick of his ice axe into the snow and hitching the rope around the axe's adze. He stood in a secure position and held the rope in his right hand above the hitch, pressed downward with his left on the axe's shaft, and, using his entire weight, leaned towards the incline, securing the pick of his axe in the snow. Commonly, in such circumstances, the belay will not hold when applying this technique, or the rope will snap. Fortunately, the axe and rope held because their bodies' combined weight and momentum did not come upon the rope at once, which saved the lives of Somervell, Norton, and Morshead. They regained their positions and reached their tents after nightfall, exhausted, hungry, frostbitten, and dehydrated.

Second summit attempt, Finch and Bruce

George Finch

On 27 May, George Finch, Geoffrey Bruce, and Tejbir Bura departed from Camp VI at 25,500 ft (7,772 m) on the North Ridge, using supplemental oxygen for another attempt. They took Bura, shouldering two spare oxygen cylinders, as far as the Northeast Shoulder at 27,400 ft (8,352 m), where he descended, as part of the plan. Finch and Bruce loaded up the extra cylinders, and dispensed their climbing rope to advance faster. When they reached 27,000 ft (8,230 m), they changed course and climbed towards a point on the Northeast Ridge, halfway between the Northeast Shoulder and the summit. Not long after, Bruce, about 20 ft (6 m) below Finch when his oxygen apparatus failed, struggled upwards as his partner came to his aid, and they repaired the equipment. It was approximately midday, and their aneroid barometer registered an elevation of 27,300 ft (8,321 m), surpassing the previous attempt by 315 ft (96 m), a new world record. Weakened by hunger and exhaustion, they were unable to continue, and descended to Camp VI.

Third summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Crawford and the North Col avalanche

At the beginning of June, the expedition arranged a third attempt. The plan was to ascend to their old Camp V at 25,000 ft (7,620 m) without using supplemental oxygen and then, using a cylinder each, continue to an elevation of 26,000 ft (7,925 m) where they would establish the new Camp V. From there the team would use the supplemental oxygen to attempt to reach the summit. On 7 June at 8 am, Mallory, Somervell, Colin Crawford, and 14 porters left Camp III at 21,000 ft (6,401 m) and traversed the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The team reached the base of the 1,000 ft (305 m) wall of snow and ice rising to the North Col at 10 am and 15 minutes later Somervell, Mallory, Crawford, and one of the porters began the climb. At 1:30 pm the group halted about 600 ft (183 m) below Camp IV to allow the other porters to join them. At about 1:50 pm, soon after the team continued the ascent, an avalanche began on an ice cliff above them and swept over the entire group. Somervell, Mallory, Crawford and the porter managed to dig out from beneath the snow and saw a group of four porters approximately 150 ft (46 m) below them gesturing down the slope. The avalanche had swept the other 9 porters into a crevasse. The remaining team members, later joined by expedition members John Noel and Arthur Wakefield, immediately began a search and rescue effort, finding eight of the nine porters. Only two had survived. A memorial cairn was constructed at Camp III in honour of the seven who perished: Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, and Antarge. This marked the end of the 1922 expedition. On 5 August, Mallory departed from India by ship, and arrived in England in mid-August.

Announcement of a third expedition, lectures and writing

Central Hall, City of Westminster

The announcement that the Tibetan government had formally authorised the third expedition to Everest came on 16 October 1922 at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club at Central Hall, London. The Everest Committee resolved that the third expedition would commence in spring 1924. The committee was eager to generate money to cover some of the 1924 expedition's costs and discussed terms for a lecture programme. A large-scale lecture tour was organised, with Mallory and George Finch selected as the two speakers. On 20 October 1922, Mallory and Finch at the Central Hall, City of Westminster, delivered their first public lectures concerning the 1922 expedition, including photo illustrations. During the winter, Mallory presented a round of talks throughout Britain and Ireland, filling engagements in places such as Aberdeen, Brighton and Dublin, receiving 30% of the proceeds. In addition to authoring Everest and Himalaya-related articles for periodicals and encyclopaedias to supplement his income, the committee requested he contribute to the official book of the 1922 expedition, The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922.

North America lecture tour and writing

Broadhurst Theatre, New York

The Everest Committee arranged for Mallory to travel to North America on a three-month lecture tour. Mallory and Ruth concurred he should strive for steady employment when he returned. Mallory docked in New York on 17 January 1923. After meeting lecture agent Keedick, Mallory was dismayed he had arranged only a meagre number of lectures, and had to wait 9 days to deliver his first speech. He amended his lecture materials and wrote his finalised contribution to the 1922 expedition book, The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922. His first contribution was titled The First Attempt, consisting of chapters: The Problem, The Highest Camp, and The Highest Point, and his second had chapters: The Third Attempt and Conclusions. On 26 January, in Washington, D.C., Mallory delivered two lectures, which grossed $1000. His next engagement was in Philadelphia, where he delivered two lectures for a combined audience of approximately 3000, grossing $1500. After an evaluation by medical professionals at the NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, they determined his lung capacity was twice that of the average person. On 4 February, Mallory gave a lecture at the Broadhurst Theatre, New York, in front of an audience of 550, filling only half the seating capacity. The next day, The New York Times ran a story under the headline, SAYS BRANDY AIDED MT EVEREST PARTY; A Swig 27,000 Feet Up 'Cheered Us All Up Wonderfully,' Mallory Tells Audience, which diverted its coverage of the tour into anti-prohibition propaganda. A Toronto appointment resulted in a cancellation, and a Montreal appearance grossed a meagre $48. In Boston, he delivered a lecture to the Appalachian Mountain Club, gave a speech in Cambridge, made a second visit to Philadelphia, where at the University Museum, he spoke to an audience of 1200, and delivered lectures in Toledo, Rochester, Iowa City, and Hanover, before a second engagement in Boston. Under the headline, CLIMBING MOUNT EVEREST IS WORK FOR SUPERMEN, The New York Times of 18 March quoted Mallory as having replied to the question, "Why did you want to climb Mount Everest?" with the retort, "Because it's there." The expression describes an existential desire to accomplish a physical and spiritual goal that mountaineers share. Questions have arisen over the quote's authenticity and whether Mallory said it. Some suggest it was an innovative paraphrase created by the reporter. The tour was a financial failure; Mallory regretted that he, Ruth, and the children would have to live on less than he had anticipated, because he had no immediate prospects for permanent employment. Mallory docked in Plymouth in early April.

Cambridge lecturer and Olympic medal

Mallory in the early 1920s

David Cranage, Secretary of the Board of Extra-Mural Studies at Cambridge University, and Arthur Robert Hinks of the Everest Committee travelled together on a train from London to Cambridge while Mallory was still in America, and discussed a vacancy that solved Mallory's situation. Cranage advertised a vacancy for a history lecturer to educate in towns and villages outside of Cambridge and assist organising other courses. They would conduct lectures in cooperation with the Workers' Educational Association, established to support working people who had missed the opportunity for education in favour of the privileged. Cranage apprised Hinks about the job and questioned whether he knew possible candidates, Hinks suggested Mallory. Hinks informed Mallory soon after he arrived back in England. Mallory applied and following a successful interview was appointed on 18 May. The occupation provided an annual income of £350, supplemented by lecture fees of £150 yearly. He found a suitable residence for the family at Herschel House on Herschel Road, Cambridge. Mallory immersed himself in his new employment with zeal, assisted organising the Golden Jubilee of Cambridge Local Lectures in July, and helped arrange summer schools during the Long Vacation. In the fall of 1923, he commenced lectures in Hunstanton on the emergence of democracy in the 17th century; in Raunds, tutorial classes in modern history; and conducted classes in Halstead. On 18 October, Hinks wrote to Cranage, requesting Mallory obtain leave to participate in the 1924 expedition. The Lecture Committee recommended six months' leave at half pay.

SS California in 1925, entering New York Harbor

On 6 November, after a medical examination by a physician recommended by the Everest Committee, Mallory was declared "fit in every respect," eliminating the last potential obstacle between him and participation in the expedition. On 5 February 1924, at the closing ceremony of the inaugural Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France, Pierre de Coubertin presented 13 gold medals, including for Mallory, for alpinism in recognition of the achievements of the 1922 Everest expedition members to Lt Col Edward Strutt, deputy expedition leader.

1924 British Mount Everest expedition

Main article: 1924 British Mount Everest expedition

Andrew Irvine, Mallory's climbing partner

The expedition members included leader General Charles Bruce, Edward Norton as second-in-command and mountaineering leader; mountaineers Andrew Irvine, Howard Somervell, Geoffrey Bruce, Bentley Beetham, and John de Vars Hazard; mountaineer and oxygen officer Noel Odell; photographer and cinematographer John Noel; naturalist and medical officer Richard Hingston; and transportation officer Edward Shebbeare. On 29 February, Mallory and three other expedition members, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard, departed from Liverpool on board SS California. During the voyage to India, Mallory read Maurois's Ariel, studied Hindustani, and worked through the logistics of supplies and aspects of the organisation for the expedition. Determined to remain physically healthy, he exercised regularly in the gymnasium, threw a medicine ball with Irvine and Beetham, and periodically ran ten laps around the deck. In mid-March, California arrived at her destination, berthing in Bombay. Mallory, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard travelled to Darjeeling, where they rendezvoused with the other participants. On 25 March, the entire expedition departed Darjeeling for the march to Everest Base Camp. The trek of 350 miles (560 km) took them from Darjeeling to Kalimpong, Guatong, Jelep La, Yatung, Phari, Tang La, Donka La, Kampa Dzong, Tinki Dzong, Tinki La, Chiblung, Shekar Dzong, Chödzong, and Rongbuk, and they arrived at Base Camp on 29 April, at an altitude of 16,800 ft (5,120 m). On 9 April, General Bruce had collapsed due to recurrent malaria and had ongoing cardiovascular issues during the trek to Base Camp. Norton took charge, appointed Mallory as deputy and mountaineering leader, and Charles Bruce returned to India.

Mallory and Bruce's attempt

On 1 June, at 6 am, Mallory and Geoffrey Bruce, without supplemental oxygen, and eight porters commenced their ascent from Camp IV on the North Col at 23,000 ft (7,010 m). They planned to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at approximately 25,500 ft (7,772 m), where they would sleep overnight; the following day, they would ascend to about 27,200 ft (8,291 m), where they would pitch Camp VI, sleep overnight, and on 3 June, attempt to reach the summit without oxygen. The precise elevation for establishing Camps V and VI depended on the porters' abilities to carry heavy loads in the rarefied air and weather conditions. As the two climbers and eight porters ascended the North Ridge with an average gradient of 45 degrees, they were exposed to a penetrating northwest wind. At approximately 25,000 ft (7,620 m), four of the porters could not ascend any further after reaching the limits of their endurance. Mallory, Bruce, and the four remaining porters progressed to an elevation of 25,200 ft (7,681 m), where they established Camp V. Five porters descended to Camp IV, leaving three to shoulder loads the following day up to the location where the expedition intended to pitch Camp VI. Mallory, Bruce, and the three porters slept at Camp V that night, and on the next day, only one porter was able to proceed, and two declared themselves sick and physically unable to carry loads. Without enough porters to assist, the attempt was abandoned immediately, and the party returned to the North Col.

On 2 June Somervell and Norton began a second attempt. On 4 June Somervell and Norton left Camp VI and commenced their ascent to reach the summit. At midday, as they neared 28,000 ft (8,534 m), Somervell, who was suffering from an extremely sore throat and a severe cough, felt it impracticable to continue. Somervell sat on a ledge while Norton proceeded solo. At 1 pm, suffering from temporary visual impairment due to oxygen deficiency, exhausted from his efforts, and knowing that from his location and the current time, he stood no chance of reaching the summit and returning safely, Norton retreated from where he had attained a new world altitude record of 28,126.0 ft (8,572.8 m). At 9:30 pm, Somervell and Norton reached Camp IV.

Mallory and Irvine's last climb

Dear Odell,

"We're awfully sorry to have left things in such a mess—our Unna Cooker rolled down the slope at the last moment. Be sure of getting back to IV to-morrow in time to evacuate by dark, as I hope to. In the tent I must have left a compass—for the Lord's sake rescue it: we are here without. To here on 90 atmospheres for the 2 days—we'll probably go on 2 cylinders—but it's a bloody load for climbing. Perfect weather for the job!"

Yours ever, G. Mallory.

On 4 June, at 2:10 pm, Mallory and Irvine, using supplemental oxygen for the final half of their ascent, left Camp III at 21,000 ft (6,401 m) and reached Camp IV on the North Col at 23,000 ft (7,010 m) in 3 hours, at 5:10 pm, including about 30 minutes at a dump choosing and testing oxygen cylinders. That night, Mallory shared a tent with Norton, who had just returned from his summit attempt with Somervell, and informed Norton that if his summit bid with Somervell had failed, he had planned to make one further attempt with supplemental oxygen. Mallory elucidated that he went down to Camp III and recruited enough porters with Bruce's assistance for another endeavour. He chose Irvine as his climbing partner because of the initiative and mechanical expertise he exhibited with the oxygen apparatus. On 6 June, at 8:40 am, Mallory and Irvine, set off in excellent weather from Camp IV, for Camp V on the North Ridge at 25,200 ft (7,681 m), accompanied by eight porters. Both mountaineers shouldered modified oxygen apparatus, each carrying two cylinders apiece, and their eight porters, not using oxygen, took provisions, bedding, and extra cylinders. They progressed steadily and attained Camp V in good time, and shortly after 5 pm, four of their porters arrived back at Camp IV, with a note from the climbing party stating, "There is no wind here, and things look hopeful." The two climbers and their four remaining porters spent the night at Camp V. On 7 June, Mallory, Irvine, both using oxygen for part of their climb, and the four porters ascended to Camp VI at 26,700 ft (8,138 m) on the North Ridge. That same day, expedition member Noel Odell and his porter Nema, in support of Mallory and Irvine, climbed to Camp V. Soon after they attained Camp V, Mallory and Irvine's four remaining porters reached it from Camp VI, and gave Odell a note from Mallory.

Odell's porter, Nema, was suffering from altitude sickness, so that evening Odell sent him down, along with the other four porters, to Camp IV. When they reached Camp IV, a porter known as Lakpa gave John Noel a second note from Mallory. Noel's filming location was above Camp III, on the ledge of a buttress at 22,000 ft (6,706 m) on the Eastern Ridge of Changtse, which he called "Eagle's Nest Point." From this vantage point, Noel had a clear view across the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier, the ice slope leading to the North Col, the Northeast Ridge, and the North Face. Lakpa informed him that Mallory and Irvine were in good health, had reached Camp VI, and the weather was fine. Mallory's message reminded Noel of the locations and approximate time of where and when to look for them during their summit attempt, which they had previously discussed and organised. Mallory erroneously wrote 8:0 P.M.; he meant A.M.

Dear Noel,

"We'll probably start early tomorrow (8th) in order to have clear weather. It won't be too early to start looking for us either crossing the rock band under the pyramid or going up skyline at 8.0 P.M."

Yours ever, G. Mallory.

The following morning, 8 June, at 8 am, after spending the night alone at Camp V, Odell, again supporting Mallory and Irvine, commenced his ascent up to Camp VI and, on his way, intended to conduct a geological study. That same morning, Noel perched himself at "Eagle's Nest Point," where he directed the long lens of his motion picture camera towards the summit to film Mallory and Irvine. He had two assistant porters, peering through a telescope in turns, who saw nothing; 8 am arrived and went without sighting the mountaineers, and by 10 am, cloud and mist had enshrouded their view of the entire summit ridge. As Odell ascended to Camp VI, in a limestone band at approximately 25,500 ft (7,772 m), he discovered the first definite fossils on Everest. When he reached an elevation of about 26,000 ft (7,925 m), Odell climbed a small crag close to 100 ft (30.48 m) in height, and above him, as he reached its top at 12:50 pm, he witnessed a rapid clearing of the atmosphere and consequently saw the entire summit ridge and final peak of Everest revealed, and he sighted Mallory and Irvine on a prominent rock step on the ridge.

"At 12:50, just after I had emerged in a state of jubilation at finding the first definite fossils on Everest, there was a sudden clearing of the atmosphere, and the entire summit ridge and final peak of Everest were unveiled. My eyes became fixed on one tiny black spot, silhouetted on a small snow crest beneath a rock step in the ridge, and the black spot moved. Another black spot became apparent and moved up the snow to join the other on the crest. The first then approached the crest rock step and shortly emerged at the top. The second did likewise. Then the whole fascinating vision vanished, enveloped in cloud once more. There was but one explanation. It was Mallory and his companion, moving, as I could see even at that great distance, with considerable alacrity ... The place on the ridge mentioned is a prominent rock step at a very short distance from the base of the final pyramid."

     — Noel Odell, support climber and last man to see Mallory and Irvine alive, 8 June 1924. This version of Odell's sighting appeared in the Aberdeen Press and Journal on 5 July 1924.

The location of Odell's initial reported final sighting of Mallory and Irvine—before they disappeared into the clouds and was to become the last time the pair were seen alive—was at the top of the Second Step and determined by expedition member John de Vars Hazard using a theodolite to be at an elevation of 28,230 ft (8,603.5 m). At approximately 2 pm, as Odell reached Camp VI at 26,700 ft (8,138 m), snow began to fall, and the wind strengthened. Inside Mallory and Irvine's tent, he discovered spare clothes, food scraps, sleeping bags, oxygen cylinders, and parts of the oxygen apparatus; outside, he found parts of the oxygen apparatus and the duralumin carriers. They left no note specifying when they had commenced their attempt or what might have transpired to create a delay. Odell departed from Camp VI, ascended about 200 ft (61 m) in the direction of the summit in sleet and poor visibility of no more than a few yards, and whistled and yodelled in an attempt to direct Mallory and Irvine towards Camp VI in case they happened to be within hearing distance, but to no avail. Within one hour, he retreated, and at approximately 4 pm, as he re-attained Camp VI, the weather cleared; the entire North Face became bathed in sunshine, and the upper crags became observable, but there was no sign of Mallory or Irvine. Odell left Mallory's compass, which he had retrieved from Camp V, inside the tent at Camp VI and, at about 4:30 pm, descended to Camp IV.

On the morning of 9 June, Odell and Hazard thoroughly inspected Camps V and VI using binoculars, with no sign of either mountaineer. Odell and two porters, left Camp IV and, at 3:30 pm, reached Camp V, where they spent the night. The following morning, he sent his porters back to Camp IV, as they were unable to ascend to Camp VI. In a strong, bitter westerly wind, Odell climbed alone to Camp VI, which he reached about 11 am. It was immediately apparent Mallory and Irvine had not returned, as everything was as he had left it two days previously. Odell discarded his oxygen apparatus and set off along the presumed route, which both climbers might have taken, to search within the limited time available. After trudging for two hours with no sign of Mallory or Irvine, he ascertained that the likelihood of finding them was remote in the expanse of crags and slabs, and an extensive search towards the final pyramid necessitated a larger party. Odell returned to Camp VI and hauled two sleeping bags up to a precipitous snow-patch, where he positioned them in the shape of a T, communicating that there was no trace of Mallory or Irvine. At 2:10 p.m., Hazard, 3,700 ft (1,128 m) below at Camp IV, saw the T-shaped signal and knew what it meant, as he and Odell had previously drawn up a code of signals before Odell had left the North Col on 9 June. At approximately 2:15 p.m., Hazard placed six blankets in the shape of a cross on the snow surface, which relayed a signal of death, to the watchers at Camp III. After being informed about the situation, expedition leader Norton ordered a response for Hazard on the North Col. Richard Hingston positioned three lines of blankets arranged apart on the glacier a short distance beyond Camp III, conveying the message, "Abandon hope and come down." After retrieving Mallory's compass and an oxygen apparatus at Odell descended to Camp IV.

On 8 June, the same day that Mallory and Irvine were last seen alive, Mallory's wife Ruth and their children were on holiday in Bacton, Norfolk. On 13 and 14 June, Howard Somervell and Bentley Beetham oversaw the carving and building of a memorial cairn at Base Camp in memory of those who perished in the 1921, 1922, and 1924 expeditions, with the inscription: In Memory Of Three Everest Expeditions; 1921, Kellas; 1922, Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, Antarge; 1924, Mallory, Irvine, Shamsher, Manbahadur. On 19 June, Arthur Robert Hinks, who was then in London, received a coded telegram that read, "Mallory Irvine Nove Remainder Alcedo," sent from expedition leader Edward Norton. "Nove" expressed the message that Mallory and Irvine had died, and "Alcedo" meant everyone else was unharmed. That same day, Hinks sent a telegram to Cambridge, where shortly after 7:30 pm, a delivery boy arrived with it at the Mallory residence, Herschel House, Cambridge, to communicate the tragic news and the condolences of the Mount Everest Committee to Ruth.

Message from the King and memorial service at St Paul's Cathedral

St Paul's Cathedral, London

On 24 June, a message sent from King George V to Younghusband of the Everest Committee appeared in The Times, in which the King conveyed "an expression of his sincere sympathy" to the families and committee concerning the deaths of the "two gallant explorers". On 17 October, a solemn memorial service at St Paul's Cathedral, was held in honour of the two climbers, at which the Right Reverend Henry Paget, Bishop of Chester, from whose diocese both men had come, delivered the sermon. The parents of both mountaineers, Ruth, relatives and close friends, members of the expeditions and Mount Everest Committee, the Alpine Club, Royal Geographical Society, and other explorers and scientists attended. Additionally present were representatives of the royal family; Sir Sidney Greville represented the King; Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Piers Legh, the Prince of Wales; Lieutenant Colin Buist, the Duke of York. Mallory's will was proven on 17 December; he bequeathed his estate of £1706 17s. 6d. (equivalent to £120,000 in 2023) to his wife.

Lost on Everest for 75 years

Discovery of the ice axe, 1933

On 30 May 1933, during the 1933 British Mount Everest expedition, Percy Wyn-Harris and Lawrence Wager commenced their summit attempt from Camp VI, at 27,490 ft (8,380.4 m), on the Yellow Band, below the Northeast Ridge. After approximately one hour of climbing, Wyn-Harris, who was leading, found an ice axe located about 60 ft (18 m) below the crest of the Northeast Ridge and 751 ft (229 m) east of and below the First Step, at an elevation of 27,720 ft (8,450 m). Wyn-Harris and Wager left the axe where they had discovered it, and after retreating from a failed summit attempt, Wyn-Harris retrieved the axe and presumably left his own in its place.

The axe was ascertained to be either Mallory or Irvine's, to the exclusion of all others. During his descent with Edward Norton on 4 June 1924, Howard Somervell had dropped his ice axe in the Yellow Band near the Norton Couloir, further west from where Wyn-Harris had found the ice axe, and no mountaineers from the expeditions before 1933, other than Mallory and Irvine, were at the location where Wyn-Harris discovered the axe. Although it is definitive that the axe found by Wyn-Harris was Mallory's or Irvine's, there was no decisive evidence to prove which mountaineer owned it. In 1934, Noel Odell inspected the axe when shown to him by Wyn-Harris and saw three parallel horizontal nick marks on its shaft, which neither Harris nor Wager had seen. He thought it might have been a mark used by Irvine on some of his equipment, although not verified by visual inspection of such items returned to Irvine's family, some of whom seemed to remember seeing a similar marking.

Mallory's widow Ruth informed Odell that, "as far as she was aware"—which may indicate she was unsure—Mallory never marked his equipment with triple marks or other type of mark, and assumed the axe belonged to Irvine. To Odell, Wyn Harris suggested a porter may have cut the triple mark to identify individuals' property during the 1924 expedition, though such was not the practice of many, if any, of the 1924 porters. Wyn Harris assured Odell that his porter Pugla cut the X mark, seen lower down on the shaft of the axe found in 1933, during the return journey from the 1933 expedition. Several 1933 expedition members considered it likely the axe belonged to Mallory because it had a Swiss manufacturer, Willisch of Täsch, stamped on it, and Mallory had journeyed to the Alps shortly before the 1924 expedition, when he may have acquired it. They were unaware this manufacturer had supplied all members of the 1924 expedition with light axes, and Mallory or Irvine might have used them during their fatal summit attempt. In 1962, a brother of Irvine found a military swagger stick, presumed to have belonged to Irvine, and on it are three horizontal identification nick marks resembling those on the axe discovered by Wyn-Harris in 1933; therefore, the axe is possibly Irvine's.

In 1977, Walt Unsworth, author of Everest: The Ultimate Book of the Ultimate Mountain, examined the axe discovered in 1933 and observed four sets of marks on its shaft. In addition to the three marks seen by Odell and the cross mark cut by Pugla, he saw a single horizontal nick mark above the three observed by Odell and another three nick marks, though fainter in appearance, on the other side of the shaft opposite the cross mark.

Smythe's sighting, 1936

"Since my search for the two Oxford fellows, I feel convinced that it marks the scene of an accident to Mallory and Irvine. There is something else ... it's not to be written about, as the press would make an unpleasant sensation. I was scanning the face from the Base camp through a high-power telescope last year[1936] when I saw something queer in a gully below the scree shelf ... it was a long way away and very small ... but I've a six/six eyesight, and I do not believe it was a rock ... when searching for the Oxford men on Mont Blanc, we looked down onto a boulder-strewn glacier and saw something which wasn't a rock either—it proved to be two bodies. The object was at precisely the point where Mallory and Irvine would have fallen had they rolled on over the scree slopes below the yellow band. I think it is highly probable that we shall find further evidence next year."

     — Frank Smyth, in a letter to Edward Norton, 4 September 1937.

In 1937, Frank Smythe wrote to Edward Norton in reply to Norton's approbation of Smythe's book Camp Six, an account of the 1933 expedition. Noted in his letter was the discovery of the ice axe in 1933 found below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, where Smythe felt certain it marked the scene of an accident to Mallory and Irvine. Smythe disclosed that during the 1936 British Mount Everest expedition, he scanned Everest's North Face with a high-powered telescope from Base Camp and spotted an object, which he presumed was the body of either Mallory or Irvine and it was not to be written about because he feared press sensationalism.

Smythe's sighting was unknown to the public until his son Tony revealed the information in his 2013 book, My Father, Frank: Unresting Spirit of Everest; the author discovered a copy of the letter in the back of a diary.

Holzel, Everest historian

Everest historian, Tom Holzel, the co-author with Audrey Salkeld of The Mystery of Mallory and Irvine, first became interested in the Mallory and Irvine enigma after reading about it in a 1970 edition of The New Yorker. Holzel devised a theory regarding the mystery, published in a 1971 edition of Mountain magazine. His theory was that the two mountaineers split up soon after Odell had sighted them ascending the Second Step at 12:50 pm, and when successfully climbed, each had only 1+1⁄2 hours of supplemental oxygen remaining, insufficient for both to reach the summit in two or three hours. Holzel argued that given this dilemma, Mallory took Irvine's oxygen equipment, belayed him down the Second Step, from where he descended towards Camp VI at 26,700 ft (8,138 m), and with the additional oxygen, Mallory attempted to reach the summit alone. He further surmised that as the exhausted Irvine descended, the "rather severe blizzard" described by Odell, which lasted from approximately 2 to 4pm, covered the mountain with snow, turned his descent into a deadly endeavour, and caused him to slip and fall to his death. Holzel added that Mallory presumably reached the summit in the late afternoon. He theorised that where the ice axe was found—presumably the scene of an accident—in 1933, a body tumbling down the North Face from the area of its discovery would come to a halt on a snow terrace below at approximately 26,900 ft (8,200 m).

In 1980, Holzel received a letter from Hiroyuki Suzuki, foreign secretary of the Japanese Alpine Club. Suzuki's letter was in reply to Holzel, who had written to the Japanese inquiring about their 1979 Sino-Japanese Everest reconnaissance expedition and requesting they look out for Irvine's body—which Holzel had prognosticated might be discovered on a snow terrace at about 26,900 ft (8,200 m)—and the camera he may have carried. Suzuki's letter contained grievous news. He wrote that on 12 October 1979, as their reconnoitring party attempted to reach the North Col, an avalanche occurred that swept three Chinese including Wang Hongbao, into a crevasse, resulting in their deaths. Suzuki told Holzel that on 11 October—the day before the avalanche caused his death—Hongbao informed their expedition climbing leader, Ryoten Hasegawa, that during the 1975 Chinese Mount Everest expedition, he had seen "two deads." One he had seen close to a side moraine in the East Rongbuk Glacier below the 1975 expedition Camp III, and the other was on the Northeast Ridge route at an altitude of 26,570 ft (8,100 m). Suzuki expressed that Hongbao was a non-English speaker but repeated the word "English, English" to Hasegawa. Suzuki added that the first was possibly Maurice Wilson, questioned who the second he saw at 26,570 ft (8,100 m) was, and informed Holzel that Hongbao touched the latter's torn clothes, some of which the wind had blown away, and buried the corpse by placing snow on it.

1986 Mount Everest North Face Research Expedition

On 25 August 1986, the Everest North Face Research Expedition, which Holzel instigated, congregated at North Base Camp. The expedition aimed to resolve the enigma surrounding Mallory and Irvine's disappearance. Their primary objective was to ascend to the 27,000 ft (8,230 m) snow terrace, where they intended to locate the remains of the "English dead" Hongbao had sighted during the 1975 Chinese expedition. They assumed that if found, the cameras both mountaineers may have carried would resolve the mystery of whether or not they attained the summit. Their secondary objective was to search the area immediately above the Second Step, where they hoped to discover Mallory and Irvine's empty oxygen cylinders, proving they had reached that elevation and thus possibly gained the summit. They successfully established Camp V on the North Ridge at an elevation of 25,500 ft (7,772 m) but were hampered by snowstorms and avalanches, which prevented them from reaching 27,500 ft (8,382 m), where they had planned to establish Camp VI, from which they intended to search for Mallory and Irvine. Despite this, they discovered two oxygen cylinders from the 1922 expedition.

During the expedition, their liaison officer, Zhiyi Song, also a 1975 Chinese Everest expedition member, on which Hongbao had seen "two deads," informed Holzel that he heard about Hongbao's story and declared, "None of it is true. Wang never reported finding an English mountaineer." Holzel asked Song if it was conceivable Hongbao had discovered an English body and did not officially report it and only informed his friends. Song knowledgeably replied, "If that is so," he knew who Hongbao's mountaineering partners were and Holzel could meet them on the return to Peking. In Lhasa, Tibet, Song introduced Holzel to Chen Tianliang, Hongboa's 1975 climbing leader. Tianliang denied Hongbao had discovered an English body at 26,570 ft (8,100 m) and asserted he would know because he was with Hongbao the entire time they were at high altitudes. Tianliang was positive that if Hongbao had come across mortal remains, it must have only been those of a missing Chinese mountaineer whom Tianliang was assigned to search for and who was located a few days later. As the interview continued, Tianliang agreed with Holzel that Hongbao could not have found the remains of the missing Chinese climber, because he would have identified and reported his find immediately. Holzel asked Tianliang if there were anything he would like to add, and Tianliang declared that during a rest period at Camp VI, he received a radio call instructing him to ascend to Camp VII to search for the missing climber. Tianliang ascended, leaving two climbers at Camp VI, Hongbao and Zhang Junyan. Holzel asked Tianliang if he thought it possible Hongbao might have found an English body after he departed, and Tianliang conceded it was conceivable and added that Zhang Junyan now resided in Peking. Song arranged a meeting with Junyan. Through his interpreter, Holzel questioned Junyan about what had occurred at Camp VI after Tianliang left. Junyan stated he remained in his sleeping bag, and Hongbao exited the tent to go for a walk; he was gone for approximately 20 minutes, and later, Hongbao informed him that he had discovered the remains of a foreign mountaineer and Hongbao had mentioned this to other climbers.

1999 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition

Main article: Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition

Vest Pocket Kodak

The goal of the 1999 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition was to discover whether Mallory and Irvine had been the first to summit Everest. Objectives included finding Irvine’s body and retrieving a camera that might hold proof of any summit success. It was organised by expedition leader Eric Simonson and advised by researcher Jochen Hemmleb, with mountaineers Conrad Anker, cameraman Dave Hahn and others.

After he had re-examined the historical record of Everest North Face expeditions, Jochen Hemmleb recognised the only seemingly factual information about Mallory and Irvine—other than artefacts such as the ice axe, found in 1933—was that during the 1975 Chinese Everest expedition, Wang Hongbao had discovered a body he had insisted was "English, English!" during a twenty-minute walk from Camp VI. The initial challenge was to identify the location of Chinese Camp VI and use it as the centre point of a circular search zone with a twenty-minute walk radius. From a photo of Camp VI, Hemmleb determined it was on an ill-defined rib of rock that bisects the snow terrace on the North Face.

On 1 May 1999, at approximately 10am, Anker, Hahn, Norton, Politz, and Richards reached 26,900 ft (8,199 m), where they were to establish Camp VI. From there, they set out for the "ill-defined rib" and traversed west over the North Face's precipitously angled terrain. Anker searched on intuition and descended to the lower margin of the snow terrace, where it drops away approximately 6,560 ft (2,000 m) to the head of the central Rongbuk Glacier and soon after zig-zagging back up in the direction of Camp VI, he looked west and saw a "patch of white," which he proceeded towards, and ascertained it was an old body; it was 11:45 am, and 26,800 ft (8,156 m) was the elevation where the corpse lay. The body was partially frozen into the scree and well preserved due to the cold, dry air and constant freezing temperatures. Tied to the corpse's waist were the remnants of a braided cotton climbing rope, tangled around the body, from which its broken, frayed end trailed.

The prevalent assumption was Irvine had fallen in 1924 from where, in 1933, Percy Wyn-Harris had discovered the ice axe, presumably Irvine's; therefore, Anker, Hahn, Norton, and Richards expected the body to be his, but Politz said, "This is not him." Norton found a label reading, "G. Mallory." They discovered another label with "G. Leigh. Ma," and a third label. The expedition members realised, to their astonishment, that they had not found Irvine as expected, but Mallory. Because the corpse had frozen into the surrounding scree, the mountaineers used their ice axes and pocketknives to excavate the site to find crucial artefacts and, most importantly, Somervell's Vest Pocket Kodak camera he "allegedly" lent Mallory for his attempt. If they discovered the camera, it might have solved the mystery of whether or not the summit was reached for the first time in 1924, 30 years before the first confirmed summit in 1953. Experts from Kodak said it might be possible to develop images from the film and have drawn up specific guidelines for an expedition that might discover the camera. Personal possessions were discovered on Mallory's body including letters addressed to him. To the expedition members' dismay the most sought-after object, the camera, was not found after a thorough search. The mountaineers buried Mallory, covering his remains with rocks, and Politz read a Church of England committal ceremony provided by the Bishop of Bristol.

North Face of Everest, altitudes of discoveries, the Three Steps, and its summit

The discovery of the body revealed circumstantial evidence that suggests Mallory might have reached the summit: firstly, Mallory's daughter always said Mallory carried a photo of his wife with the intention of leaving it on the summit, and no such photo was found on the body. Given the excellent preservation of the body and personal possessions, the absence of the photo suggests he may have reached the summit and deposited it there. Secondly, Mallory's snow goggles were in his pocket, indicating he may have died at night; that he and Irvine had made a push for the summit and were descending very late in the day. Given their known departure time and movements, had they not made the summit, it is unlikely they would have still been out by nightfall.

Hillary enthusiastically welcomed the discovery of Mallory's body and described it as "very appropriate" that Mallory might have summited decades earlier. "He was really the initial pioneer of the whole idea of climbing Mount Everest," Hillary said. Mallory's son John said, "To me the only way you achieve a summit is to come back alive; the job's half done if you don't get down again."

Further expeditions

The 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition retraced Mallory and Irvine’s route and attempted to find artifacts from the early attempts. Jake Norton and Brent Okita discovered the remnants of the 1924 Camp VI at an altitude of 26,700 ft (8,138 m), from which Mallory and Irvine had departed on 8 June. Norton discovered a woollen mitten of unknown origin on the Northeast Ridge at an altitude of 27,690 ft (8,440 m); it may have belonged to Mallory or Irvine. There were research initiatives in 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2018, 2019 and the 2007 Altitude Everest expedition retraced Mallory and Irvine's footsteps.

Timeline

• 1893: Aged 7, climbed the roof of a church.
• 1904: Aged 18, made his first significant climb by summiting Mont Blanc, the highest peak in Western Europe.
• 1909: First ascent of the Southeast Ridge of Nesthorn (3,822 m)
• 1911: First ascent of the Western Ridge of Herbétet (3,778 m) and third ascent of the Southeast Ridge (Frontier Ridge) of Mont Maudit (4,465 m).
• 1912: Established a new route on the West Face of Dent Blanche, marking a first ascent of this face.
• 1915–18: Officer in the First World War
• 1919: First ascent of a new route on the Aiguille des Grands Charmoz (3,445 m) and Aiguille du Midi (3,842 m), later named the "Rectified Mallory-Porter Route".
• 1920: Summiting the Matterhorn (4,478 m) and Zinalrothorn (4,221 m).
• 1921: First British reconnaissance expedition to Everest, helping to map out potential routes to the summit.
• 1922: Second British expedition to Everest, where his team set a world altitude record of 27,300 feet (8,230 m) without supplemental oxygen.
• 1924: Disappeared near the summit along with Andrew "Sandy" Irvine, leading to one of the greatest mysteries in mountaineering.
• 1924–1950s: Speculation about whether Mallory and Irvine reached the summit, adding to the mystery surrounding their disappearance.
• 1953: Hillary and Norgay became the first climbers to confirm reaching the summit of Everest, renewing interest in Mallory and Irvine.
• 1975: A Chinese climber reported finding the body of an "old English dead" climber on the north face of Everest, likely either Mallory or Irvine.
• 1986: Climbers Conrad Anker and David Roberts examined the route Mallory might have taken and considered the possibility of successful ascent.
• 1995: Publication of The Ghosts of Everest brought renewed attention to the mystery of Mallory and Irvine
• 1999: Mallory's remains and personal effects were discovered, but whether he reached the summit remains unknown.
• 2007: Conrad Anker, who helped discover Mallory's body, completed a replica climb of Everest using period gear similar to that Mallory would have used.
• 2010: Advances in DNA analysis further confirmed the identity of Mallory's remains.
• 2013: The film The Wildest Dream highlighted both his life and modern efforts to uncover the truth.

Theories

Some members of the 1924 expedition: Mallory is highlighted beside Edward F. Norton to his left and Geoffrey Bruce far right, in the town of Shelkar. The local Dzongpen (governor) is second from right.

"Second Step"

As Mallory and Irvine used the Northeast Ridge route, they would have had to free-climb the formidable Second Step. Of the Three Steps on the upper Northeast Ridge, the Second and most prominent, rising approximately 100 ft (30.48 m) and consisting of precipitous, brittle rock at an extreme altitude of 28,250 ft (8,610 m), is the most demanding. The final upper section of this step is its crux, a 16 ft (4.87 m) nearly vertical headwall slab to which the 1975 Chinese expedition affixed a 15 ft (4.6 m) aluminium ladder. Although disputed, the first successful ascent of the Second Step occurred during the 1960 Chinese Mount Everest expedition, as all four mountaineers were breathing supplemental oxygen. They used a technique called "short ladder" in which Chu Yin-hau stood on Liu Lianman's shoulders to climb to the top of the crux. Chu Yin-hau then belayed himself to a rock at the top of the Step and brought others up on the rope. It took 3 hours for 4 mountaineers to ascend the crux, and they used pitons, which neither Mallory nor Irvine had.

In 1985, during full-monsoon conditions and without supplementary oxygen, Òscar Cadiach, climbing on lead, achieved the first successful free-climb of the Second Step, ascending the crux on belay with a sling tied to one of the rungs of the Chinese ladder. He graded the vertical crack, that forms the crux, at about 5.8. In 2001, Theo Fritsche free-soloed the crux without supplementary oxygen, and assessed it as about 5.7. In 2003, Nickolay Totmjanin free-climbed it without supplementary oxygen. On the 2007 Altitude expedition, Anker and Leo Houlding successfully free-climbed the crux headwall, having first removed the ladder, both rating it about 5.9. Everyone known to have free-climbed this step believes it was within Mallory and Irvine's capability, but other question marks remain, e.g. concerning oxygen.

Western disturbance

Research published in 2010 indicates an extreme storm may have contributed to the deaths of Mallory and Irvine. Physicist George Moore discovered meteorological data from the 1924 expedition at the Royal Geographical Society's library in London. The data consisted of daily barometric pressure and temperature measurements recorded at Base Camp at 16,500 ft (5,029 m). Temperature measurements were also recorded at higher camps. The data collected, together with an analysed sea-level pressure map hand-drawn by the India Meteorological Department, were used to show that Mallory and Irvine's summit attempt occurred when there was a drop in barometric pressure and temperature, which was likely the result of the passage of an upper-level trough. This is known locally as a western disturbance. The authors hypothesised that the passage of the disturbance possibly triggered an outbreak of convective activity that resulted in the blizzard, witnessed by observation, engulfing Everest during the attempt. Odell described the morning of 8 June as "clear and not unduly cold", with snowfall and increasing winds beginning at approximately 2pm, which he described as a "rather severe blizzard," lasting about two hours and possibly severe enough to force Mallory and Irvine to abandon their bid. Records show a drop in barometric pressure at Base Camp of 18 millibars during the attempt. A drop of a similar magnitude possibly occurred at higher altitudes on the Himalayan peak. This decrease in barometric pressure likely induced aggravation of their hypoxic state. Also, if they had run out of supplemental oxygen during the early afternoon, this would have exacerbated their hypoxic condition. The cumulative effects of hypoxia, fatigue and bitter cold during a severe blizzard would have left Mallory and Irvine at their limits of endurance. The authors believe there is persuasive evidence the severe weather they experienced may have been more extreme than previously thought. This harsh weather and decreased barometric pressure may have contributed to their demise.

Legacy

Mallory Court at Magdalene College, Cambridge

Memorial to George Mallory and Andrew Irvine in Chester Cathedral

At Winchester College there is a memorial to him in the cloister adjacent to the college chapel. Mallory was honoured by having a court named after him at Magdalene College, with an inscribed stone commemorating his death set above the doorway to one of the buildings. To commemorate Mallory's position as Magdalene Boat Club Captain, the Friends of Magdalene Boat Club changed their name to the Mallory Club. A plaque commemorates him in the South African Cloisters at Charterhouse. A stained-glass triptych window at St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley, Cheshire, portraying three figures from English mythology, Saint George, King Arthur and Sir Galahad, also has two panels with inscriptions commemorating Mallory. In addition to his father, Herbert Leigh Mallory, the rector of Mobberley, Mallory's grandfather, George Leigh Mallory, was the parish's rector. In the cloisters of Chester Cathedral, there is a memorial window commemorating Mallory and Irvine. Two high peaks in California's Sierra Nevada, Mount Mallory and Mount Irvine, are named after them.

Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory

Tragedy in the mountains has proved a recurring theme in the Mallory line; his brother, Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, met his death on a mountain range when the Avro York carrying him crashed in the French Alps in 1944, killing all on board. Mallory's daughter, Frances Clare, married physiologist Glenn Allan Millikan, who was killed in a climbing accident in 1947 at Buzzard's Roost in Fall Creek Falls State Park, Tennessee.

Frances Mallory's sons, Richard and George Millikan, became respected climbers in the 1960s and 70s. In July 1963, Richard Millikan and other members of the Harvard Mountaineering Club, made the first ascent of the central rib of the Wickersham Wall on the north face of Mount McKinley, reaching North Peak at 19,470 ft (5,934 m). In 1995, together with six other climbers, George Mallory, grandson of Mallory, reached the summit of Everest via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route as part of an American Everest expedition and evoked a sense of "unfinished business" by leaving a photo of his grandparents on the summit.

Mallory was filmed by expedition cameraman John Noel, who released his film of the 1924 expedition, The Epic of Everest. Film director George Lowe used footage from The Epic of Everest in the 1953 documentary, The Conquest of Everest. A documentary on the 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition, Found On Everest: Detectives on the Roof of the World, was produced by Riley Morton. Brian Blessed played Mallory in Galahad of Everest, a 1991 re-creation of his last climb. In Anthony Geffen's 2010 documentary about Mallory's life and final expedition, The Wildest Dream, Conrad Anker and Leo Houlding attempt to reconstruct the climb, dressed and equipped like Mallory and Irvine.

Mallory and Irvine inspired Baku Yumemakura to author the 1998 novel The Summit of the Gods, which in turn inspired a manga series published from 2000–03, which was adapted into an anime-influenced animation film, Le Sommet des Dieux, in 2021. Everest, a proposed Hollywood version of the 1924 attempt, adapted from Jeffrey Archer's novel Paths of Glory, to be directed by Doug Liman, had Ewan McGregor slated to play Mallory. As of 2022 it was not in production.

In September 2009, a temporary exhibition detailing Mallory and Irvine's lives opened at the Salt Museum (now Weaver Hall Museum and Workhouse), Northwich. The exhibition, "Above the Clouds – Mallory and Irvine and the Quest for Everest," featured items discovered on Mallory's body, as well as artefacts and photos from the 1924 expedition.

Mallory was referenced by President John F. Kennedy in 1962, in his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech, regarded as one of the great speeches of the 20th century: 'the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, "Because it is there." Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it...'

See also

• List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
• List of solved missing person cases: pre-1950
• List of unsolved deaths

References

Bibliography

Books

• Anker, Conrad; Roberts, David (1999). The Lost Explorer: Finding Mallory on Mount Everest. New York City, U.S.: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-87151-6.
• Birkett, Thomas William (1989). Classic Rock Climbs in the Lake District. Oxford, UK: Oxford Illustrated Press. ISBN 978-0-946609-56-7.
• Birkett, Thomas William; Cram, Geoff; Eilbeck, Chris; Roper, Ian (1987). Rock Climbing in the Lake District: An Illustrated Guide to Selected Climbs in the Lake District (3rd ed.). London, UK: Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-467640-4.
• Breashears, David; Salkeld, Audrey (1999). Mulroy, Kevin (ed.). Last Climb: The Legendary Everest Expeditions of George Mallory. Foreword by John Mallory (George Mallory's son). Washington D.C., U.S.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-0-7922-7538-1.
• Bruce, Charles Granville (1923). The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922. Introduction by Sir Francis Younghusband; Contributions from G.H. Leigh-Mallory, G.I. Finch, T.H. Somervell, and T. G. Longstaff. New York City, U.S.: Longmans, Green & Co.
• Cook, Theodore Andrea (1919). Henley Races: With Details of Regattas from 1903 to 1914 Inclusive and a Complete Index of Competitors and Crews Since 1839. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; Humphrey Milford.
• Cram, Alan Geoffrey, ed. (1986). 100 Years of Rock Climbing in the Lake District. Vol. 24 (2) No. 70. UK: The Fell And Rock Climbing Club of the English Lake District. ISBN 978-0-85028-023-4.
• Crocket, Ken (1986). Ben Nevis: Britain's Highest Mountain. Edinburgh, UK: Scottish Mountaineering Trust. ISBN 978-0-907521-16-7.
• Davis, Wade (2011). Into the Silence: The Great War, Mallory, and the Conquest of Everest. London, UK: The Bodley Head. ISBN 978-1-847-92184-0.
• Murray, William Hutchison (1953). The Story of Everest. Illustrated by Robert Anderson. New York City, U.S.: E.P Dutton & Co. Inc.
• Edmonds, J.E. (Compiled by); Maxwell-Hyslop, R. (Compiled by); Davies, H.R. (Compiled by) (1947). Military Operations France and Belgium, 1918. Volume V: 26th September – 11th November The Advance to Victory. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. UK: His Majesty's Stationery Office.
• Firstbrook, Peter (2000). Lost on Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine. Oxford, UK: ISIS Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-0-7531-5480-9.
• Foch, Ferdinand (1931). The Memoirs of Marshal Foch. Translated by Mott, Colonel Thomas Bentley. London, UK: William Heinemann Ltd.
• Gillman, Peter; Gillman, Leni (2000). The Wildest Dream: The Biography of George Mallory (1st North American ed.). Seattle, Washington, U.S.: The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-741-1.
• Graves, Robert (1998). Good-Bye to All That: An Autobiography. Introduction by Paul Fussell (New Revised ed.). New York City, U.S: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-09330-9.
• Green, Dudley (2005). Because It's There: The Life of George Mallory. Foreword by John Mallory (George Mallory's son). Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-0-7524-3399-8.
• Hankinson, Alan (1977). The Mountain Men: An Early History of Rock Climbing in North Wales. London, UK: Heinemann Educational Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-435-86002-8.
• Hemmleb, Jochen; Johnson, Larry; Simonson, Eric; Nothdurft, William E. (1999). Fulsaas, Kris (ed.). Ghosts of Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine. Foreword by Clare Millikan (George Mallory's daughter) (1st ed.). Seattle, Washington, U.S.: The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-699-5.
• Hemmleb, Jochen; Simonson, Eric (2002). Graydon, Don (ed.). Detectives on Everest: The 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition. Contributions from Dave Hahn, Larry Johnson, Riley Morton, Jake Norton, Brent Okita, Andy Politz, John Race, Tap Richards, and Jason Tanguay (1st ed.). Seattle, Washington, U.S.: The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-913-2.
• Holroyd, Michael (1995). Lytton Strachey: The New Biography. New York City, U.S: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52465-4.
• Holzel, Tom; Salkeld, Audrey (1999). The Mystery of Mallory and Irvine. Foreword by Eric Simonson (2nd Revised ed.). London, UK: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6488-2.
• Howard-Bury, Charles Kenneth (1922). Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921. Introduction by Sir Francis Younghusband; Contributions from G.H. Leigh-Mallory, A.F.R.Wollaston, J.N. Collie, H.T. Morshead, E.O. Wheeler, A.M. Heron, and A.R. Hinks. London, UK: Edward Arnold & Co.
• Howett, Kevin (2001). Rock climbing in Scotland (2nd ed.). London, UK: Constable Publishers, an imprint of Constable & Robinson Limited. ISBN 978-0-09-479610-2.
• Jones, David (1993). Rock Climbing in Britain. London, UK: Diamond Books. ISBN 978-0-261-66030-4.
• Hoyland, Graham (2014). Last Hours on Everest: The Gripping Story of Mallory & Irvine's Fatal Ascent. Glasgow, UK: William Collins, an imprint of HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-745574-4.
• Jones, Iwan Arfon (2003). Moulton, Bob (ed.). Llanberis (5th ed.). UK: The Climbers' Club. ISBN 978-0-901601-76-6.
• Mackenzie, John Ruaridh Grant; Williams, Noel (2005). Everett, Roger (ed.). Skye: Rock and Ice Climbs. Location: Edinburgh, UK: Scottish Mountaineering Trust. ISBN 978-0-907521-87-7.
• Messner, Reinhold (2001). The Second Death of George Mallory: The Enigma and Spirit of Mount Everest. Translated by Carruthers, Tim (1st U.S. ed.). New York City, U.S.: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26806-0.
• Neal, Kelvin (1998). Smith, Ian (ed.). Lliwedd (4th ed.). UK: The Climbers' Club. ISBN 978-0-901601-61-2.
• Neale, Jonathan (2002). Tigers of the Snow: How One Fateful Climb Made The Sherpas Mountaineering Legends (1st ed.). New York City, U.S: Thomas Dunne Books, an imprint of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26623-3.
• Neff, Kelly Joyce (2015). Everest Dream: A Novel of Friendship - George Mallory and Mary Anne O'Malley. North Charleston, SC, U.S.: Createspace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-5152-2103-6. Archived from the original on 5 September 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
• Noel, John Baptist Lucius (1927). Through Tibet to Everest. London, UK: Edward Arnold & Co.
• Norton, Edward Felix (1925). The Fight for Everest: 1924. Introduction by Sir Francis Younghusband; Contributions from C.G. Bruce, J.G. Bruce, N.E. Odell, Bentley Beetham, R.W.G. Hingston, T.H. Somervell, and E.O. Shebbeare. London, UK: Edward Arnold & Co.
• Powell, Anne, ed. (2009). Women in the War Zone: Hospital Service in the First World War. Cheltenham, UK: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-5059-6.
• Rees, Nigel (2006). Brewer's Famous Quotations: 5000 Quotations and the Stories Behind Them. London, UK: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-304-367993.
• Robertson, David Allan (1999). George Mallory. Foreword by Joe Simpson (1st Paperback ed.). London, UK: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 978-0-571-20314-7.
• Romanych, Marc; Heuer, Greg (2017). Railway Guns of World War I. New Vanguard. Illustrated by Steve Noon (1st Paperback ed.). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. ISBN 978-1-4728-1639-9. Archived from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2022.
• Ruttledge, Hugh (1934). Everest 1933. Foreword by Sir Francis Younghusband; Contributions from Dr C.R. Greene, E.O. Shebbeare, J.L. Longland, L.R. Wager, Dr S.N. Sen, and N.P. Chatterjee. London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.
• Salkeld, Audrey (1991). People in High Places: Approaches to Tibet. London, UK: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-02883-7.
• Salkeld, Audrey (2003). Climbing Everest: Tales of Triumph and Tragedy on the World's Highest Mountain. Washington D.C., U.S.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-0-7922-5105-7.
• Smythe, Tony (2013). My Father, Frank: Unresting Spirit of Everest. Foreword by Doug Scott (1st ed.). Sheffield, UK: Bâton Wicks Publications. ISBN 978-1-898573-87-6. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
• Somervell, Theodore Howard (1947). After Everest: The Experiences of a Mountaineer and Medical Missionary. Foreword by Sir Francis Younghusband (4th ed.). London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.
• Summers, Julie (2001). Fearless on Everest: The Quest for Sandy Irvine. Seattle, Washington, U.S.: The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-796-1.
• Thompson, Simon (2012). Unjustifiable Risk?: The Story of British Climbing (1st Paperback ed.). Cumbria, UK: Cicerone Press Limited. ISBN 978-1-85284-679-4.
• Thomson, James Merriman Archer; Andrews, Arthur Westlake (1909). The Climbs on Lliwedd. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
• Unsworth, Walt (1991). Everest: The Ultimate Book of the Ultimate Mountain (2nd ed.). London, UK: GraftonBooks. ISBN 978-0-586-20626-3.
• Vajpai, Arjun; Kumar, Anu (2010). On Top of the World: My Everest Adventure. New Delhi, India: Penguin Books, India. ISBN 978-0-143-33172-8. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
• Walsh, Maurice (2016). Bitter Freedom: Ireland in a Revolutionary World 1918–1923. London, UK: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 978-0-571-24301-3.
• Weber, Alan, ed. (2003). Because It's There: A Celebration of Mountaineering from 200 B.C. to Today. Translated by Weber, Alan. Lanham, Maryland, U.S.: Taylor Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87833-303-5.
• Williams, Paul (1990). Rock Climbing in Snowdonia. London, UK: Constable and Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-09-468410-2.
• Young, Geoffrey Winthrop (1927). On High Hills: Memories of the Alps (2nd ed.). London, UK: Methuen & Co. Limited.

Journals

• Abrons, Henry L. (1964). Carter, H. Adams (ed.). "A New Route on The Wickersham Wall (Mount McKinley, North Face Direct)". The American Alpine Journal. 14 No. 1 (38). New York City, U.S.: American Alpine Club: 47–51. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
• Beckey, Fred (April 1948). Bates, Robert H.; Robertson, David Allan (eds.). "Appalachian Mountains". The American Alpine Journal. 7 No. 1 (21). New York City, U.S.: American Alpine Club: 100. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
• Beckwith, Christian, ed. (2000). "Climbs And Expeditions: Tibet". The American Alpine Journal. 42 (74). Golden, Colorado, U.S.: American Alpine Club: 375–379. ISBN 978-0-930410-87-2. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
• Bicknell, Peter (1975). Pyatt, Edward (ed.). "In Memoriam (Leslie Garnet Shadbolt 1883–1973)" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 80 (1975 No. 324): 294–304. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2022. Alt URL
• Brockbank, Philip (2011). "The Beginning: 1902–1918" (PDF). A Short History of the Rucksack Club 1902–1939. Prepared for publication in 2011 by Mike Dent, Roger Booth, and John Payne. Manchester, UK: The Rucksack Club: 3–22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023. Alt URL
• Carter, H. Adams, ed. (1980). "Climbs And Expeditions" (PDF). The American Alpine Journal. 22 No. 2 (53). New York City, U.S.: American Alpine Club: 657–658. ISBN 978-0-930410-76-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
• Croston, Roger (1 October 2000). Douglas, Ed (ed.). "The Letter: A newly-discovered letter written by George Leigh Mallory" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 105 No. 349 (2000). Glasgow, UK: Ernest Press: 157–176. ISBN 978-0-948153-62-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
• Elliott, Claude; Russell, Robert Scott (1974). Pyatt, Edward (ed.). "In Memoriam (H.E.L. Porter 1886–1973)" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 79 No. 323 (1974). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK): 279–286. ISBN 978-0-900523-11-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
• Finch, George Ingle (1965). Cox, Anthony David Machell (ed.). "In Memoriam (Thomas Guy Burton Forster Smith-Barry 1886–1962)" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 70 No. 310 & 311 (1965). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK): 359–381. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
• Fraser, Duncan Cumming (November 1926). "Obituary. Mr. Ralph Todhunter". Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. 57 No. 3 (291). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 338–347. JSTOR 41137170. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
• Gillman, Peter (September 2011). Goodwin, Stephen (ed.). "Mallory on The Ben". The Alpine Journal. 115 No. 359 (2010–2011). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK) (published 10 September 2011): 199–205. ISBN 978-0-9569309-0-3. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
• Hemmleb, Jochen (2006). Cordes, Kelly (ed.). "Climbs And Expeditions: Tibet". The American Alpine Journal. 48 (80). Seattle, Washington, U.S.: The Mountaineers Books: 468–469. ISBN 978-1-933056-01-2. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Heron, Alexander Macmillan (June 1922). "Geological Results of the Mount Everest Expedition, 1921". The Geographical Journal. 59 No. 6 (1922). London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society: 418–431. Bibcode:1922GeogJ..59..418H. doi:10.2307/1780634. JSTOR 1780634. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
• Hinks, Arthur Robert, ed. (1924). "Memorial Service at St. Paul's Cathedral". The Geographical Journal. 64 (6). London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society (published December 1924): 462–465. Bibcode:1924GeogJ..64..462.. doi:10.2307/1781920. JSTOR 1781920. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
• Irving, Robert Lock Graham (1911). Yeld, George (ed.). "The Alpine Journal: February 1910 to November 1911". The Alpine Journal. 25 #187–194 (1910–1911). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
• Irving, Robert Lock Graham (1912). Yeld, George (ed.). "The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912". The Alpine Journal. 26 #195–198 (1912). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
• Irving, Robert Lock Graham (November 1948). "In Memoriam Harry Edmund Guise Tyndale (1888–1948)" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 56 No. 277 (1948). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK): 386–402. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
• Keenlyside, Francis Hugh, ed. (1961). "The Conquest of Everest by the Chinese Mountaineering Team" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 66 # 302 & 303 (1961). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK): 28–41. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (1912). Yeld, George (ed.). "The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912". The Alpine Journal. 26 #195–198 (1912). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
• Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (September 1918). Yeld, George (ed.). "Mont Blanc from the Col du Géant by the Eastern Buttress of Mont Maudit". The Alpine Journal. 32 No. 218 (1918). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co.: 148–162. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
• Mallory, George Herbert Leigh; Porter, Harold Edward Lionel (March 1920). Yeld, George; Farrar, John Percy (eds.). "New Expeditions In 1919" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 33 No. 220 (1920). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co.: 129–134. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
• Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (February 1922). "Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance". The Geographical Journal. 59 No. 2 (1922). London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society: 100–109. Bibcode:1922GeogJ..59..100M. doi:10.2307/1781387. JSTOR 1781387. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
• Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (December 1922). "The First High Climb". The Geographical Journal. 60 No. 6 (1922). London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society: 400–412. Bibcode:1922GeogJ..60..400M. doi:10.2307/1781077. JSTOR 1781077. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
• Mondini, Felice (1902). "Il versante Italiano del Monte Bianco: 1. Storia alpinistica" [The Italian side of Mont Blanc: 1. Mountaineering history] (PDF). Bollettino del Club Alpino Italiano (in Italian). 35 No. 68 (1902). Turin, Italy: Club Alpino Italiano: 171–222. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023. Alt URL
• Moore, George William Kent; Semple, John; Sikka, Dev (2 August 2010). Graham, Eddy; Lee, Simon (eds.). "Mallory and Irvine on Mount Everest: Did extreme weather play a role in their disappearance?". Weather Journal: (Royal Meteorological Society). 65 (8). Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 215–218. Bibcode:2010Wthr...65..215M. doi:10.1002/wea.590. S2CID 119532622. Archived from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2022. Alt URL
• Morshead, Henry Treise (September 1923). "MOUNT EVEREST: By MAJOR H.T. MORSHEAD, D.S.O., R.E." The Royal Engineers Journal. 37 No. 3 (1923). Chatham, UK: The Institution of Royal Engineers: 353–368. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
• Norton, Edward Felix (August 1924). "The Mount Everest Dispatches". The Geographical Journal. 64 No. 2 (1924). Contributions from George Herbert Leigh-Mallory, Howard Somervell, and Noel Odell. London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society: 145–165. Bibcode:1924GeogJ..64..145.. doi:10.2307/1780694. JSTOR 1780694. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
• Odell, Noel Ewart (December 1924). "The Last Climb of Mallory and Irvine". The Geographical Journal. 64 No. 6 (1924). London, UK: The Royal Geographical Society: 455–461. Bibcode:1924GeogJ..64..455O. doi:10.2307/1781919. JSTOR 1781919. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
• Odell, Noel Ewart (November 1934). Strutt, Edward Lisle (ed.). "Correspondence: The Ice Axe Found on Everest" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 46 No. 249 (1934). London, UK: Alpine Club (UK): 442–452. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
• Puttrell, James William (1900). Gray, Thomas (ed.). "The Keswicks Brothers' Climb, Scafell" (PDF). The Yorkshire Ramblers' Club Journal. 1 No. 2 (1900). Leeds, UK: Yorkshire Ramblers' Club: 102–106. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2022. Alt URL
• Pye, David Randall (1919). Goggs, Frank Sidney (ed.). "A Fortnite In Skye" (PDF). The Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal. 15 #87–88 (1919). Scotland, UK: Scottish Mountaineering Club: 132–149. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
• Reid, Stephen (2006). Elliott, Doug; Holden, John (eds.). "Mallory's Route or North-West by West" (PDF). The Fell and Rock Centenary Journal 2006. 27 (3) No. 80 (2006). UK: The Fell And Rock Climbing Club of the English Lake District: 678–687. ISBN 978-0-85028-047-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023. Alt URL
• Robertson, David Allan (1959). Farquhar, Francis Peloubet (ed.). "In Memoriam: Geoffrey Winthrop Young 1876–1958". The American Alpine Journal. 11 No. 2 (33). New York City, U.S.: American Alpine Club: 278–282. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
• Russell, Chris A. (1 July 1989). Sondheimer, Ernst (ed.). "One Hundred Years Ago" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 93 No. 337 (1988–1989). London, UK: Frederick Muller, an imprint of Century Hutchinson Limited: 207–212. ISBN 978-0-09-173659-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
• Russell, Chris A. (1991). Sondheimer, Ernst (ed.). "One Hundred Years Ago". The Alpine Journal. 96 No. 340 (1991–1992). London, UK: Frederick Muller, an imprint of Random Century Group Limited (published 19 September 1991): 215–222. ISBN 978-0-09-174841-8. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
• Russell, Chris A. (1 September 1999). Douglas, Ed (ed.). "One Hundred Years Ago" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 104 No. 348 (1999). Glasgow, UK: 202–209. ISBN 978-0-948153-59-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
• Russell, Chris A. (2019). Douglas, Ed (ed.). "One Hundred Years Ago" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 123 No. 367 (2019). Hinckley, UK: Cordee Limited: 241–243. ISBN 978-0-9569309-8-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
• West, John Burnard (2003). Bodine, Sue (ed.). "George I. Finch and his pioneering use of oxygen for climbing at extreme altitudes". Journal of Applied Physiology. 94 (5). Rockville, Maryland. U.S.: American Physiological Society (published 1 May 2003): 1702–1713. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00950.2002. PMID 12679344.
• Yeld, George, ed. (1912). "The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912". The Alpine Journal. 26 #195–198 (1912). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
• Young, Geoffrey Winthrop (May 1910). Yeld, George (ed.). "In Memoriam Charles Donald Robertson (1879–1910)" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 25 No. 188 (1910). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co.: 138–145. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• Young, Geoffrey Winthrop (November 1912). Yeld, George (ed.). "Alpine Accidents In 1912: The Accident on the Pic du Midi d'Ossau" (PDF). The Alpine Journal. 26 No. 198 (1912). London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co.: 452–458. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2023.

Magazines

• Rushton, Neil, ed. (2017–2018). "Magdalene College Magazine". Magdalene College Magazine. No. 62. Aude Valluy-Fitzsimons (Deputy Editor), Jo Hornsby, and Louise Foster. Cambridge, UK: Alumni Publications, Magdalene College (published 1 October 2018). Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022. Alt URL

External links

• Peter H. Hansen: Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (1886–1924) – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
• Mike Parsons and Mary B. Rose. Mallory Myths and Mysteries: The Mallory Replica Project – Mallory Myths.
• Mallory and Irvine Memorials – Mount Everest The British Story.
• The George Mallory Award – Wasatch Mountain Film Festival.
• Everest Dream – Kelly Joyce Neff.
• The Epic of Everest at the Internet Archive
• Boswell, the Biographer at the Internet Archive
• George Mallory at Olympedia
• Works by George Mallory at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Works by George Mallory at Project Gutenberg
• George Herbert Leigh-Mallory on Lives of the First World War